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Is Turkey Clean Or Unclean According To The Bible

When it comes to turkey, we all want to know: is it clean or unclean?

The answer is not as straightforward as you might think. In fact, there are a lot of reasons why the Bible doesn’t explicitly say whether or not turkey is clean or unclean—and that’s why we’re here!

According to the Bible, turkeys are clean animals. The Bible never specifically mentions turkeys and therefore does not forbid eating them. Thus, if you choose to eat turkey on Thanksgiving (or any other day), you will be fulfilling your biblical obligation as a Christian.

Turkey is probably best known for its appearance on Thanksgiving tables across America every November, but it’s also enjoyed in many other countries around the world during holidays such as Christmas and Easter—as well as all year round! In fact, many people love turkey so much that they choose it over chicken at least once a week for dinner!

First, let’s start with what we DO know about turkeys. The Bible does mention them—specifically in Leviticus 11:16–19, where they are listed under “detestable” animals. Detestable animals have been considered unclean by some branches of Judaism and Christianity because they are considered to be “unclean” by nature; namely, they do not have split hooves and they eat their own poop (Leviticus 11:3).

So, what does that mean for our beloved Thanksgiving turkey? Well, it means that if you’re Jewish or Christian and follow the Old Testament laws laid out in Leviticus, then eating turkey would be considered an act of sin. But if you’re not Jewish or Christian, well, don’t worry too much about it!

Take the time to visit our catalog right here on Churchgists for prompt information on unclean foods list, unclean fish in the bible, list of clean and unclean animals in the bible, and so much more.

Is Turkey Clean​ Or Unclean According ‍To ⁣The Bible?

To determine whether turkey is clean or unclean according to the Bible, we must examine the list of clean and unclean animals as mentioned in Leviticus 11. In this chapter, God​ provides⁣ detailed instructions on⁤ which animals are considered clean, ⁣suitable for consumption, and which are unclean, to ⁣be ⁤avoided. The​ clean animals‌ listed in Leviticus⁣ 11:2-3 include⁣ cattle, sheep,⁣ goats, deer, gazelles, ⁣roebucks, wild goats, antelopes, and mountain sheep. These ⁣animals have‍ cloven hooves and chew the cud. On the other hand, the ​unclean animals ⁢listed in Leviticus 11:4-8 include ⁤camels, ‍rabbits, pigs, ⁢and horse creatures like horses, mules, and donkeys. These animals either have a divided ‍hoof but don’t‌ chew the‍ cud or they chew the cud but do not have a divided hoof.

Unclean Foods List

In ‌addition to the specific ⁣list of unclean animals, there is a general⁤ principle provided in Leviticus​ 11:9-12 that states, “These you may eat of all that are in the ⁣waters: whatever‍ has fins ‍and scales you may​ eat. But⁢ whatever does not ​have ‍fins and scales you shall not ‌eat; it is ⁤unclean for you.” Based on this principle, we ⁤can conclude that if‍ a fish does not have fins and scales, it is⁤ considered unclean and should ⁤not be​ consumed. However, fish such as salmon, cod,⁤ and tuna, which⁣ do have fins and scales, are considered clean and can be eaten.

Unclean Foods List in the Bible

Unclean Foods List in the Bible


In the Bible, particularly in the Old Testament, there are specific guidelines given regarding what foods are considered unclean. These guidelines were set forth to the Israelites by God through various passages in the Bible. The following is a list of the unclean foods mentioned in the Bible:



Fish
As mentioned earlier, the Bible states that⁣ fish without fins and scales are considered unclean and should not be consumed. In Leviticus 11:10-12, it specifically⁣ mentions that‍ any fish that does not have ⁣fins and scales is ‍deemed unclean. Examples of unclean fish include eels, catfish, sharks, ​and ⁣shellfish like ​lobsters, crabs, and shrimp. These aquatic creatures do not have the necessary ​fins and scales,‌ making⁤ them unfit for consumption ⁢according‌ to the dietary laws⁢ outlined in the Old Testament. While turkey ⁤is not a fish, it is important to examine ⁤the characteristics that define clean and unclean animals in the Bible to gain insight into the topic ⁤at hand.

  1. Any fish without fins and scales (Leviticus 11:9-12)


Animals
In summary, the Bible⁢ provides a list of clean and ⁢unclean animals in Leviticus ⁣11 to guide believers in their dietary choices. While​ turkey is not⁤ explicitly mentioned, it aligns ⁢more with ‍the characteristics of clean animals and ⁢is widely accepted ⁢as a clean‌ food source. It is also ⁣important to consider the New Testament teachings, which emphasize the purity of the ‌heart over external regulations. Although the⁤ dietary ⁤laws may no longer hold the same‍ significance, individuals may still choose to abide by personal convictions and cultural practices when it comes to food choices. In conclusion, based on ​the biblical principles and the absence ‍of specific mention regarding turkey’s​ cleanliness or uncleanness, it can be considered a⁣ clean animal and permissible ​for consumption ‍according to the Bible.


  1. Pigs (Leviticus 11:7)

  2. Rabbits (Leviticus 11:6)

  3. Eagles (Leviticus 11:13)

  4. Vultures (Leviticus 11:14)



Birds

Returning to the question of whether‍ turkey is clean or unclean according to the Bible, ‌we can conclude that turkey falls under the⁢ category‍ of clean animals. It is not explicitly ⁤mentioned as‍ an⁢ unclean bird in the Bible, and⁣ it possesses characteristics that align with the definition of clean animals stated‍ in Leviticus 11. The‌ Bible explicitly lists ‌unclean birds like eagles, vultures, ravens, hawks, and owls, but does not mention turkey. Therefore, we can infer that turkey is ‍considered clean and permissible ‍for consumption based on⁤ the absence of its⁣ mention ​in the list of unclean birds.


  1. Owls (Leviticus 11:17)

  2. Cormorants (Leviticus 11:17)

  3. Storks (Leviticus 11:19)



Insects


  1. Any insects that walk on all fours (Leviticus 11:21-23)



It is important to note that these guidelines were specific to the Israelites and were meant to set them apart from other nations. Christians today do not adhere to these dietary laws as they are considered part of the Old Covenant that was fulfilled in Christ.

Is Chicken Unclean According to the Bible?

Now, let’s address the‌ question ​of ⁣whether chicken is clean or unclean according to the Bible.‍ In Leviticus‍ 11:13-19,⁣ the Bible provides a ⁢list ⁢of birds that are⁢ considered unclean. These include eagles, vultures, buzzards, kites, ravens, ostriches, seagulls, hawks, owls, cormorants, and storks, among others. Chicken, ⁣however, is not explicitly mentioned in this ​list. Therefore,⁢ we can infer⁢ that chicken is considered clean according to⁤ the Bible. It has ⁢been widely accepted as a clean and permissible‌ food source in many cultures and ⁤religious traditions.

Clean and Unclean Animals in the Bible New Testament

God did not specify why certain creatures should be eaten and others should be avoided, but we can draw broad generalizations from the animals that fall into the two groups.

God prohibits the consumption of scavengers and carrion eaters, which eat other animals for food, when he lists the animals that should not be consumed.

Decaying meat can be eaten by animals like pigs, bears, vultures, and raptors, and they can even grow from it. The weakest (and occasionally sickest) members of animal herds are typically preyed upon by predatory creatures like wolves, lions, leopards, and cheetahs.

When it comes to marine life, animals that live on the bottom, such lobsters and crabs, scavenge dead animals from the ocean floor. Shellfish that resemble oysters, clams, and mussels also eat

organic material that decomposes and sinks to the ocean floor, such as sewage.

Many of the animals God labels as unclean have one thing in common: they frequently consume flesh that would make humans ill or even kill them. We become a member of a food chain that contains hazardous organisms for humans when we consume such animals.

What animals does the Bible say not to eat?
Simply stated, God explains that:

Clean fish must have scales and fins. Bass, cod, flounder, grouper, salmon, snapper, trout and tuna all fit this category. Since catfish, lobsters, crabs, shrimp and many other water creatures do not have fins and scales, God says we should not eat them.


Animals must have cloven (divided) hooves and chew the cud. These types of animals include antelope, cattle, goat, elk and deer. On the other hand, rabbits and pigs do not qualify as being clean and good to eat.


In Deuteronomy 14:11-18 we read that all clean birds may be eaten, but those we are not to eat include eagles, vultures, buzzards, falcons, ravens, ostriches, owls, seagulls, hawks, jackdaws (part of the crow family), storks and herons. Chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, quail and pheasants do not appear on this list of unclean birds and are considered clean—okay for us to eat.

Most insects are not good to eat, but God says some insects, such as locusts, grasshoppers and crickets, are okay to eat (Leviticus 11:22).

It is beyond the scope of this short explanation to enumerate every possible example of clean and unclean animals. Our infographic mentioned above gives more a more detailed listing.

Clean Animals
Animals That Chew the Cud and Part the Hoof

Antelope
Bison (buffalo)
Caribou
Cattle (beef, veal)
Deer (venison)
Elk
Gazelle
Giraffe
Goat
Hart
Ibex
Moose
Ox
Reindeer
Sheep (lamb, mutton)
Fish With Fins and ScalesAnchovy
Barracuda
Bass
Black pomfret (or monchong)
Bluefish
Bluegill
Carp
Cod
Crappie
Drum
Flounder
Grouper
Grunt
Haddock
Hake
Halibut
Hardhead
Herring (or alewife)
Kingfish
Mackerel
Mahimahi (or dorado, dolphinfish[not to be confused with the mammal dolphin])Minnow
Mullet
Perch (or bream)
Pike (or pickerel or jack)
Pollack (or pollock or Boston bluefish)
Rockfish
Salmon
Sardine (or pilchard)
Shad
Silver hake (or whiting)
Smelt (or frost fish or ice fish)
Snapper (or ebu, jobfish, lehi, onaga, opakapaka or uku)
Sole
Steelhead
Sucker
Sunfish
Tarpon
Trout (or weakfish)
Tuna (or ahi, aku, albacore, bonito
or tombo)
Whitefish
Birds With Clean Characteristics

Chicken
Dove
Duck
Goose
Grouse
Guinea fowl
Partridge
Peafowl
Pheasant
Pigeon
Prairie chicken
Ptarmigan
Quail
Sagehen
Sparrow (and other songbirds)
Swan*
Teal
Turkey

Insects

Types of locusts that may include crickets and grasshoppers

In the King James Version, Leviticus 11:18 and Deuteronomy 14:16 list “swan” among unclean birds. However, this seems to be a mistranslation. The original word apparently refers to a kind of owl and is so translated in most modern Bible versions.

Is Turkey Clean Or Unclean According To The Bible

Turkey is a controversial topic in the Christian community. Some believe that it is an unclean bird, while others argue that it’s clean. What does the Bible say?

In Leviticus 11:13-20, it states that all birds of prey are unclean. However, pheasants and pigeons are clean. Chickens, turkeys, and other fowl are also considered clean.

In Deuteronomy 14:9-18, God says that all creatures with flapping wings are unclean (except for bats). Again, pheasants and pigeons are clean as well as chicken and turkeys. But what about turkey?

Some people argue that because turkeys have wings, they should be considered unclean according to Deuteronomy 14:9-18. However, this argument doesn’t take into account the fact that there are some animals with flapping wings (such as ducks) that are considered clean according to Leviticus 11:13-20! So why would God make turkeys unclean when their closest relatives—pigeons and chickens—are considered clean?

There is some debate about whether or not turkey is an unclean animal. Some people claim that because turkeys have wings, they should be considered unclean according to Deuteronomy 14:9-18. However, this argument doesn’t take into account the fact that there are some animals with flapping wings (such as ducks) that are considered clean according to Leviticus 11:13-20! So why would God make turkeys unclean when their closest relatives—pigeons and chickens—are considered clean? Also, in Leviticus 11:13-20, it states that all birds of prey are unclean. However, pheasants and pigeons are clean. Chickens, turkeys, and other fowl are also considered clean. In Deuteronomy 14:9-18, God says that all creatures with flapping wings are unclean (except for bats).

Some say that the word “unclean” in Deuteronomy 14:9-18 means “impure,” and that God was only referring to certain types of birds. However, this argument does not take into account the fact that there are some animals with flapping wings (such as ducks) that are considered clean according to Leviticus 11:13-20! So why would God make turkeys unclean when their closest relatives—pigeons and chickens—are considered clean?

The Bible clearly states in Deuteronomy 14:9-18 that all creatures with flapping wings are unclean except for bats, and in Leviticus 11:13-20 that birds of prey are unclean. Therefore, turkeys are considered to be unclean because they have wings. This article will explain why turkeys are not clean animals according to the Bible’s definition.

I believe that the turkey is a clean animal according to the Bible. There are several reasons for this conclusion, which I will explain in detail below. First, the Bible has relatively few restrictions on the types of meat that humans are allowed to consume. To understand why this is true, it’s important to consider God’s intentions for humanity when he initially gave us these rules about food. After Adam and Eve sinned in Genesis 3, God told them that their lives as well as their offspring would be characterized by pain, frustration, and ultimately death (Genesis 3:17-19). The fact that God gave his people rules about what they could eat suggests that God wanted food to be a source of pleasure and delight in the world he created (Genesis 1:26-31), even after Adam and Eve sinned against him. It makes sense then that he would not want humanity to be deprived of delicious foods like turkey!

Deuteronomy 14:3-20

Deuteronomy 14:3-20 lists the animals that are clean and unclean. The list of unclean animals in Deuteronomy 14:3-20 is very similar to the list of unclean animals in Leviticus 11.

Here’s a look at some of the differences between these two passages, which could help you figure out what qualifies as “unclean” according to God’s word.

Leviticus 11

Leviticus 11 is the chapter in the bible that talks about what is clean and unclean. Leviticus 11:3-8 specifically lists birds that are clean and those that are unclean. Turkey isn’t listed as an unclean bird!

That means it’s definitely a kosher bird, according to God himself!

1 Timothy 4:1-5

Now the Spirit speaks expressly, that in the latter times some shall depart from the faith, giving heed to seducing spirits and doctrines of demons; speaking lies in hypocrisy; having their conscience seared with a hot iron; forbidding to marry, and commanding to abstain from meats…

A turkey is clean according to the bible.

According to the Bible, turkeys are clean animals. The Bible never specifically mentions turkeys and therefore does not forbid eating them. Thus, if you choose to eat turkey on Thanksgiving (or any other day), you will be fulfilling your biblical obligation as a Christian.

Turkey is probably best known for its appearance on Thanksgiving tables across America every November, but it’s also enjoyed in many other countries around the world during holidays such as Christmas and Easter—as well as all year round! In fact, many people love turkey so much that they choose it over chicken at least once a week for dinner!

While some Christians may prefer other types of poultry when dining out or hosting guests at their home, there really isn’t anything wrong with enjoying this delicious dish—especially since there is nothing contained within Scripture which explicitly states otherwise.

We can see that a turkey is clean according to the bible. It makes sense, as turkeys are birds similar to chickens and ducks, which are also considered clean.

Unclean Birds In The Bible

In our study on the Birds of the Bible, it has been mentioned whether a bird is “clean” or “unclean.” As I have prepared the blogs, I have been considering why a bird is on the clean or unclean list. I had been saving this blog for later, but due to unexpected travel, I’ll do it now.

In Genesis 9:3 it is stated that “every moving thing that liveth shall be meat for you.” So, of course, the birds would be included in this as well. In Deuteronomy 14:11-20, a list of birds is given to signify which birds are unclean and not eaten; basically, all the rest can be consumed. But why are some birds unclean: Looking at the list, the eagle, ossifrage, kite, glede, vulture, and the hawk are known to eat dead animals (carrion). It would not be very healthy to eat them. The other birds on the list are all meat eaters, and maybe that has something to do with their being placed on the unclean list. Are the birds bad because of what they eat? No. Each one was created exactly for the purpose God intended. The carrion eaters help keep the land clean. Another passage mentions the list of unclean birds in Lev 11:13-20.

Some of the other birds on the list are a mystery to me. For instance the Cormorant, Swan, Pelican, Heron, and the Stork are birds I watch here in Florida, and they all seem to be fish eaters. One article mentions that the Heron used to be eaten, but they were fishy tasting and they stopped eating them. Why is it that no matter how many things we are given with only a few put off limits, that someone always has to try the few. Does that not sound like what happened in the garden of Eden when Eve just had to try the tree of knowledge of good and evil. When God puts something off-limits or says it is “unclean,” there is a good reason for it. Most times it is for our benefit because God loves us and doesn’t want us harmed. The “clean” birds mostly have a diet of grain, fruits, and vegetation. Could that be why they are okay to eat? With all the good birds available like chicken, turkey, quail, duck, etc., I’d much rather sit down to a Thanksgiving meal of turkey than vulture.
The birds used for the sacrifices were all clean birds.

A list of the unclean birds is given (Lev. 11:13-20; Deut. 14:12-18). In the A. V. the unclean are called the Bat, Cormorant, Cuckoo, Eagle, Gier Eagle, Glede, Hawk, Heron, Kite, Lapwing, Night Hawk, Ospray, Ossifrage, Owl great and little, Pelican, Raven, Stork, Swan, Vulture, and “fowls that creep, going upon all four.” This leaves for the clean birds the Bittern, Crane, Dove, Ostrich, Partridge, Peacock, Pigeon, Quail, Sparrow, and Swallow. Of these the Ostrich is supposed to be among the unclean under the name of Owl; the Peacock was not a native bird of Palestine; and the Bittern and Crane were inhabitants of the marshy ground among the reeds, and were probably classed with the unclean under some of the above names. We do not read of the ordinary domestic fowl in the Old Testament. See under each of the above names.

Characteristics Of Clean And Unclean Birds

The instruction God gave to Israel regarding those birds which can be eaten and those which should not be eaten is found in Deuteronomy 14:11-18

11  “All clean birds you may eat.
12  “But these you shall not eat: the eagle, the vulture, the buzzard,
13  “the red kite, the falcon, and the kite after their kinds;
14  “every raven after its kind;
15  “the ostrich, the short–eared owl, the seagull, and the hawk after their kinds;
16  “the little owl, the screech owl, the white owl,
17  “the jackdaw, the carrion vulture, the fisher owl,
18  “the stork, the heron after its kind, and the hoopoe and the bat.

(See also Leviticus chapter 11 for similar wording.)

Clean birds may be eaten (verses 11) — but these are only indirectly defined by listing unclean birds that must not be eaten (verses 12-18).

From this list of unclean birds, six characteristics have been identified as separating the clean birds from the unclean birds:

  • a clean bird has a craw or crop
  • a clean bird has a gizzard with a double lining which can be easily separated;
  • a clean bird is not a bird of prey
  • a clean bird does not devour food while flying
  • a clean bird’s hind toe and middle front toe are both elongated
  • when a clean bird stands on a perch, it spreads its toes so that three front ones are on one side of the perch and the hind toe on the opposite side.

All unclean birds lack at least one of these six characteristics. 

What Does Clean And Unclean Mean In The Bible

Clean, Unclean
The Old Testament. How Uncleanness Was Contracted and Treated. In Old Testament times the ordinary state of most things was “cleanness, ” but a person or thing could contract ritual “uncleanness” (or “impurity”) in a variety of ways: by skin diseases, discharges of bodily fluids, touching something dead ( Num 5:2 ), or eating unclean foods ( Lev 11 ; Deut 14 ).

An unclean person in general had to avoid that which was holy and take steps to return to a state of cleanness. Uncleanness placed a person in a “dangerous” condition under threat of divine retribution, even death ( Lev 15:31 ), if the person approached the sanctuary. Uncleanness could lead to expulsion of the land’s inhabitants ( Lev 18:25 ) and its peril lingered upon those who did not undergo purification ( Lev 17:16 ; Num 19:12-13 ).

Priests were to avoid becoming ritually defiled ( Leviticus 21:1-4 Leviticus 21:11-12 ), and if defiled, had to abstain from sacred duties. An unclean layperson could neither eat nor tithe consecrated food ( Lev 7:20-21 ; Deut 26:14 ), had to celebrate the Passover with a month’s delay ( Num 9:6-13 ), and had to stay far away from God’s tabernacle ( Num 5:3 ).

Purification varied with the severity of the uncleanness. The most serious to least serious cases in descending order were: skin disease (Lev. 13-14), childbirth (Lev. 12), genital discharges ( Leviticus 15:3-15 Leviticus 15:28-30 ), the corpse-contaminated priest ( Eze 44:26-27 ), the corpse-contaminated Nazirite ( Nu 6:9-12 ), one whose impurity is prolonged ( Lev 5:1-13 ), the corpse-contaminated layperson ( Num 5:2-4 ; 19:1-20 ), the menstruating woman ( Lev 15:19-24 ), the handling of the ashes of the red cow or the Day of Atonement offerings ( Leviticus 16:26 Leviticus 16:28 ; Num 19:7-10 ), emission of semen ( Lev 15:16-18 ), contamination by a carcass ( Levv 11:24-40 ; 22:5 ), and secondary contamination ( Lev 15 ; 22:4-7 ; Num 19:21-22 ).

Purification always involved waiting a period of time (until evening for minor cases, eighty days for the birth of a daughter), and could also involve ritual washings symbolizing cleansing, atoning sacrifices, and priestly rituals. “Unclean” objects required purification by water (wood, cloth, hide, sackcloth) or fire (metals), or were destroyed (clay pots, ovens), depending on the material ( Lev 11:32-35 ; Num 31:21-23 ).

The Rationale of the Purity Laws. The central lesson conveyed by this system is that God is holy but human beings are contaminated. Everyone by biology inevitably contracted uncleanness from time to time; therefore, everyone in this fallen world must be purified to approach a holy God. Although “uncleanness” cannot be equated with “sin, ” since factors beyond human control could cause a person to be unclean, nonetheless, there is a strong analogy between “uncleanness” and “sin.”

The “sin offering” (better, “purification offering”) served to cleanse both sin and ritual impurity ( Lev 5:1-5 ; 16:16-22 ). Moreover, the language of ritual impurity is used dozens of times metaphorically of various ethical sins. Human beings are “unclean” or “sinful” by nature and cannot approach a holy God. Just as uncleanness can come from within (natural bodily functions) or from without (contaminating things), so sin comes both from perverse human nature within and temptations without.

The prohibition of eating the fat of sacrificial animals and the blood of any animal reminded Israel that blood sacrifice reconciles sinful/unclean people with a holy God ( Lev 7:22-27 ; 17:11 ).

The clean/unclean system divided animals, people, and land into three categories to teach separation from the Gentiles. Animals that could be sacrificed were “holy”; wild game and fish that could be eaten but not sacrificed were “clean”; and animals that could be neither eaten nor sacrificed were “unclean.” This separation parallels that of people (cf. Lev 21:18-21 ; 22:20-24, ; where the same defects disqualify both priests and animals): priests (holy), ordinary Israelites (clean), and Gentiles (unclean). With space, there is the tabernacle (holy), the land (clean), and the nations (unclean).

Thus the food laws symbolically reinforced teaching elsewhere that Israel was a “holy nation” ( Exod 19:6 ) set apart from all others, and promoted practical holiness by discouraging table fellowship with the Canaanites whose diet would ordinarily include the pig and other “unclean” foods ( Lev 20:25-26 ), as modern kosher laws have helped maintain the Jewish race as a separate people. Other laws, by creating distinctive customs (even where such customs were without any inherent moral value, as in Lev 18:19 ), nonetheless inculcated Israel with the concept of “holiness” and served as “object lessons, ” creating in Israel a sense of self-identity as a “separated” people.

Some laws of purity express ethical lessons. Even arbitrary rules cultivate the virtue of self-control, a step toward the attainment of holiness. Eating meat torn by wild beasts not only defiled ritually, but dehumanized, reducing people to the level of scavenger dogs ( Exod 22:31 ). Cooking a kid-goat in its mother’s milk ( Exod 23:19 ; 34:26 ; Deut 14:21 ) was a perverse act. Leaving a corpse of an executed man exposed on a tree overnight was barbaric ( Deut 21:23 ). That those involved in the slaughter of war ( Nu 31:19-24 ) even at the command of God nonetheless became unclean hints at the moral impurity of war. Laws concerning sexual emissions encouraged restraint and sexual self-control (e.g., avoiding sex during menstruation) and would rightly stigmatize violators (such as prostitutes) as social outcasts.

The command not to eat the flesh with the blood inculcates respect for all animal life. Animal slaughter was limited: only for food, only certain species, only if certain procedures were followed. Moreover, ritual pouring of the blood back to God symbolically acknowledged that only by divine permission could any animal be killed ( Gen 9:2-5 ). If killing animals is not trivial, how much weightier it is to shed human blood.

The laws of purity prohibited connecting worship with sexuality. Since sexual Acts made one unclean, Israel could not follow the practice of sacred prostitution where a god’s giving of fertility was symbolized by sex Acts in the cult. This further separated Israel from her pagan neighbors.

The purity system conveys in a symbolic way that Yahweh was the God of life and was separated from death. Most of the unclean animals were either predators/scavengers or lived in caves (e.g., rock badgers). The pig, moreover, was associated with the worship of Near Eastern chthonic deities. Leprosy made a person waste away like a corpse ( Nu 12:12 ). Bodily discharges (blood for women, semen for men) represented a temporary loss of strength and life and movement toward death. Because decaying corpses discharged, so natural bodily discharges were reminders of sin and death. Physical imperfections representing a movement from “life” toward “death” moved a person ritually away from God who was associated with life. Purification rituals symbolized movement from death toward life and accordingly involved blood, the color red, and spring (lit. “living”) water, all symbols of life. This symbolism excluded necromancy ( Lev 19:31 ).

Israel was not to cook a goat in its mother’s milk not because it was a pagan practice, but because it was inappropriate to combine that which was a symbol of life (mother’s milk) with the death of that for which it was meant to give life, especially in the context of the Festival of Tabernacles (so the context of Exod 23:19 ) celebrating the life-giving power of Yahweh.

There is an incidental contribution made by the laws of purity/impurity to hygiene. Certainly the exclusion from the camp of those with possible symptoms of leprosy (Lev 13-14) and gonorrhea ( Lev 15:2-15 ) in effect quarantined these dangerous diseases and contributed to public health. The avoidance of carcasses or contact with human sputum and discharges would do the same. The ritual baths associated with purification would also contribute to hygiene. Certain unclean animals are known to transfer diseases to humans: the pig bears trichinosis; the hare, tularemia; carrion-eating birds, various diseases. Eating animal suet is now known to lead to heart disease.

Hygiene, however, is at most a secondary explanation. Some excluded animals such as the camel, which have no association with disease when ingested. Most unhealthy foods (e.g., poisonous plants) and infectious diseases are not mentioned, surprisingly, if hygiene were the purpose. Moreover, why would Christ abolish the food laws meant for hygiene? Absolution took place after healing, whereas were hygiene the purpose it should have occurred before. Symbolism rather than hygiene must be the primary purpose of these laws.

The New Testament. The New Testament usually uses “unclean” in the moral rather than ritual sense, but it also testifies to the fact that the Jewish people practiced the biblical laws of ritual purity, as well as rabbinic elaborations thereupon. (The Mishnah, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and archeological remains of ritual baths, miqvaot, provide further evidence.) The New Testament refers to purification rites for birth ( Luke 2:22-27 ), ritual washings ( Mark 7:3-4 ; John 2:6 ), and disputes over ceremonial washings ( John 3:25 ). Jesus allowed “unclean” or “evil” spirits (in the New Testament “unclean” is twenty-two times connected with demons) to enter swine, perhaps in part because it was fitting for one unclean thing to enter another ( Matt 8:28-34 ; Mark 5:1-16 ; Luke 8:29-33 ). Jews seeking Jesus’ death refused to enter the palace of Pilate to avoid contracting ceremonial uncleanness during Passover ( John 18:28 ).

Jesus condemned those who placed ritual above ethics. He rebuked those who, for ceremonial purity, cleanse the outside of the cup but do not practice inward moral purity or charity ( Matt 23:25-26 ; Luke 11:39-41 ). He implicitly condemned the priest and Levite who placed concern for ritual purity-they would be barred from temple service if they touched a corpse-over concern for human life ( Luke 10:25-37 ).

Jesus did not allow the laws of purity to keep him from touching lepers ( Matt 8:1-4 ; Mark 1:40-45 ; Luke 17:11-17 ), and he deliberately touched rather than healed by his word to show compassion and to anticipate by his action the coming change in law under the new covenant. Nonetheless, in the age of transition he required cleansed lepers to show themselves to the priest in accord with Mosaic law ( Luke 17:11-17 ). Jesus did not hesitate to touch the dead ( Matt 9:25 ; Mark 5:41 ; Luke 8:54 ), and allowed a sinful woman (e.g., a prostitute) to touch him ( Luke 7:36-38 ), despite her ritual (as well as moral) uncleanness. In such cases, and that of a woman with a flow of blood ( Matt 9:20-22 ; Mark 5:27 ), Jesus is not defiled (he went through no ceremonial purification), but those are cleansed and healed. This speaks theologically of Christ’s impeccable person.

Jesus turned water, in jars for ritual purification, into wine ( John 2:6-9 ) to symbolize the replacement of ceremonial law with something better. He did not follow the ritual washing, going beyond Mosaic law practiced by rabbinic Judaism ( Mark 7:3 Mark 7:5 ), and implicitly declared all foods “clean” ( Mark 7:19 ; cf. Rom 14:14 ; “food is unclean in itself”). A new age had dawned with the coming of Christ and the ceremonial laws of purity were passing away. Typologically, the ashes of the red heifer (for corpse contamination), the sin offering, and the ritual baths foreshadowed the power of Jesus’ blood to cleanse the conscience ( Heb 9:13-14 ; 10:22 ; 1 John 1:7 ; Rev 7:14 ).

Although the apostolic council ( Acts 15:29 ) encouraged Gentile Christians to avoid “unclean” foods (“food sacrificed to idols, from blood, from the meat of strangled animals [blood not drained]”) to facilitate table fellowship with Jewish Christians, the matter is presented as advice rather than law. There was nothing morally wrong with Jewish Christians observing the old rituals, and, accordingly, Paul did ( Acts 21:20-26, ; purification after a Nazirite vow), but Old Testament laws of purity, and all ceremonial laws, are optional, and even strangely out of place under the new covenant.

The abolition of the food laws conveys deep theological significance. The division of animals into clean and unclean symbolized the separation between Israelites and Gentiles. The abolition of the kosher laws then symbolizes a breaking down of the barrier between Jews and Gentiles. As is seen in God’s lesson to Peter in Acts 10-11, God now declares the Gentiles “clean.” In the new messianic age the principle that God’s people are to be separate (holy) from the world remains, but the lines drawn are no longer ethnic in character.

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